Mobile Phone And Battery Recycling In Mauritius Environmental Sciences Essay

Mobile Phone And Battery Recycling In Mauritius Environmental Sciences Essay The mobile phone industry, because of its desire to maintain high environmental standards, has voluntarily developed the Mobile Phone Industry Recycling Program. The program aims to ensure that potentially toxic components in mobile phones and batteries do not end up in landfill, but rather are recycled. Orange (Mauritius) and Mission Verte joint green initiative has launched a collection recycling campaign for old phones and wasted batteries. The aim was to reduce noxious liquid that may be released from the battery and cause harm to the environment for example contaminating the water in Mauritius while other parts of the phone will be recycled. Collection or disposable points will be situated in all Orange shop outlets across the island. For the period year 2007, according to the Central Statistics, Mauritius has imported a whopping   175,000 cellular phones while batteries 25 million batteries. In Mauritius, Orange has launched a national program to develop the recycling of mobile phones and batteries in partnership with BEM Enterprises Ltd, the Port Louis Citadelle Rotary Club and the Mission Verte association. Some 15 collection points have been set up at Orange stores. The collected equipment is grouped together and then transported to the BEM Enterprises sorting centre. Plastics and metals are routed to local recycling centres. Batteries, chargers and other electronic circuits for which there is no local processing channel are sent to Europe for recovery at approved recycling centres. BATTERY RECYCLING Most batteries contain heavy metals which is the main cause for environmental concern. Disposed of incorrectly, the heavy metals may leak into the ground when the battery erodes. This contributes to soil and water pollution and endangers wildlife. Some components in batteries can be toxic to fish and make them unfit for human consumption. Batteries contain a range of metals which can be reused as a secondary raw material. There are well-established methods for the recycling of most batteries containing lead, nickel-cadmium, nickel hydride and mercury. For some, such as newer nickel-hydride and lithium systems, recycling is still in the early stages. Mobile phone Battery recycling in UK It is estimated that in 2000, almost 19,000 tonnes of waste general purpose batteries and 113,000 tonnes of waste automotive batteries required disposal in the UK.    Currently, only a very small percentage of consumer disposable batteries are recycled (less than 2%) and most waste batteries are disposed of in landfill sites. The rate for recycling of consumer rechargeable batteries is estimated to be 5%.   The average household uses 21 batteries a year. The UK generates 20,000 30,000 tonnes of waste general purpose batteries every year, but less than 1,000 tonnes are recycled. Automotive batteries, on the other hand, are more routinely recycled in the UK, with a current recycling rate of approximately 90%.   They are collected at garages, scrap metal facilities and many civic amenity and recycling centres. Whilst the exact chemical make-up varies from type to type (see below), most batteries contain heavy metals, which are the main cause for environmental concern. When disposed of incorrectly, these heavy metals may leak into the ground when the battery casing corrodes.   This can contribute to soil and water pollution and endanger wildlife. Cadmium, for example, can be toxic to aquatic invertebrates and can bio-accumulate in fish, which damages ecosystems and makes them unfit for human consumption. Some batteries, such as button cell batteries, also contain mercury, which has similarly hazardous properties.   Mercury is no longer being used in the manufacture of non-rechargeable batteries, except button cells where it is a functional component, and the major European battery suppliers have been offering mercury-free disposable batteries since 1994. A number of valuable materials are used in the construction of mobile phones, and they contain components which, if carefully removed, can be used again, for example in electronic devices. Perhaps more importantly, some cell phones and their accessories contain substances that are amongst the 10 most dangerous known to man including Cadmium, Rhodium, Palladium, Beryllium and Lead Solder (Ref: Cellular Reclamation Ltd, Nov 2004) and most of this ends up in a land fill site or the sea. Now with so many convenient mobile phone recycling schemes around, theres no need for this and no excuse for not recycling your old phone % of material recycled all over the worldg-waste_recyc_material-m.gif Paper recycling Paper recycling is the process of recovering waste paper and remaking it into new paper products. There are three categories of paper that can be used as feedstocks for making recycled paper: mill broke, pre-consumer waste, and post-consumer waste. Mill broke is paper trimmings and other paper scrap from the manufacture of paper, and is recycled internally in a paper mill. Pre-consumer waste is material which left the paper mill but was discarded before it was ready for consumer use. Post-consumer waste is material discarded after consumer use, such as old corrugated containers (OCC), old magazines, old newspapers (ONP), office paper, old telephone directories, and residential mixed paper (RMP). Paper suitable for recycling is called scrap paper. The industrial process of removing printing ink from paperfibers of recycled paper to make deinked pulp is called deinking, an invention of the German jurist Justus Claproth. Water and air pollution The United States Environmental Protection Agencyà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã… ½ (EPA) has found that recycling causes 35% less water pollution and 74% less air pollution than making virgin paper. Pulp mills can be sources of both air and water pollution, especially if they are producing bleached pulp. Modern mills produce considerably less pollution than those of a few decades ago. Recycling paper decreases the demand for virgin pulp and thus reduces the overall amount of air and water pollution associated with paper manufacture. Recycled pulp can be bleached with the same chemicals used to bleach virgin pulp, but hydrogen peroxide and sodium hydrosulfite are the most common bleaching agents. Recycled pulp, or paper made from it, is known as PCF (process chlorine free) if no chlorine-containing compounds were used in the recycling process. However, recycling mills may have polluting by-products, such as sludge. De-inking at Cross Pointes Miami, Ohio mill results in sludge weighing 22% of the weight of wastepaper recycled. Recycling facts and figures In the mid-19th century, there was an increased demand for books and writing material. Up to that time, paper manufacturers had used discarded linen rags for paper, but supply could not keep up with the increased demand. Books were bought at auctions for the purpose of recycling fiber content into new paper, at least in the United Kingdom, by the beginning of the 19th century. Internationally, about half of all recovered paper comes from converting losses (pre-consumer recycling), such as shavings and unsold periodicals; approximately one third comes from household or post-consumer waste. Some statistics on paper consumption: The average per capita paper use worldwide was 110  pounds (50  kg). It is estimated that 95% of business information is still stored on paper. [Source: International Institute for Environment and Development (IIED) Discussion Paper (IIED, London, September 1996)] Recycling 1  short ton (0.91  t) of paper saves 17 mature trees, 7 thousand US gallons (26  m3) of water, 3  cubic yards (2.3  m3) of landfill space, 2 barrels of oil (84 US gal or 320  l), and 4,100  kilowatt-hours (15  GJ) of electricity enough energy to power the average American home for six months. Although paper is traditionally identified with reading and writing, communications has now been replaced by packaging as the single largest category of paper use at 41% of all paper used. 115 billion sheets of paper are used annually for personal computers. The average web user prints 28 pages daily. Most corrugated fiberboard boxes have over 25% recycled fibers. Some are 100% recycled fiber. This articles factual accuracy may be compromised because of out-of-date information. Paper recycling by region European Union Paper recovery in Europe has a long history and has grown into a mature organization. The European papermakers and converters work together to meet the requirements of the European Commission and national governments. Their aim is the reduction of the environmental impact of waste during manufacturing, converting/printing, collecting, sorting and recycling processes to ensure the optimal and environmentally sound recycling of used paper and board products. In 2004 the paper recycling rate in Europe was 54.6% or 45.5  million short tons (41.3  Mt). The recycling rate in Europe reached 64.5% in 2007, which confirms that the industry is on the path to meeting its voluntary target of 66% by 2010. Japan Municipal collections of paper for recycling are in place. However, according to the Yomiuri Shimbun (Japanese newspaper published in Tokyo, Osaka, Fukuoka, and other major Japanese cities), in 2008, eight paper manufacturers in Japan have admitted to intentionally mislabeling recycled paper products, exaggerating the amount of recycled paper used. United States of America Recycling has long been practiced in the United States. The history of paper recycling has several dates of importance: 1690: The first paper mill to use recycled linen was established by the Rittenhouse family. 1896: The first major recycling center was started by the Benedetto family in New York City, where they collected rags, newspaper, and trash with a pushcart. 1993: The first year when more paper was recycled than was buried in landfills. Today, over half of the material used to make paper is recovered waste. Paper products are the largest component of municipal solid waste, making up more than 40% of the composition of landfills. In 2006, a record 53.4% of the paper used in the US (or 53.5 million tons) was recovered for recycling. This is up from a 1990 recovery rate of 33.5%. The US paper industry has set a goal to recover 55 percent of all the paper used in the US by 2012. Paper packaging recovery, specific to paper products used by the packaging industry, was responsible for about 77% of packaging materials recycled with more than 24 million pounds recovered in 2005. By 1998, some 9,000 curbside programs and 12,000 recyclable drop-off centers had sprouted up across the US for recycles collection. As of 1999, 480 materials recovery facilities had been established to process the collected materials. In 2008, the global financial crisis resulted in the price of old newspapers to drop in the US from $130 to $40 per short ton ($140/t to $45/t) in October. Recycling Plastic Bottles ( UK ) Plastic bottles can be found almost anywhere on Earth. This attests to the fact of their usefulness and to the ease and low cost in making these items. Indeed plastic bottles are so useful that almost any liquid beverage or food product can be found being sold in plastic bottles. So why do we recycle? The practice of recovering scraps and waste plastic and reprocessing these materials into new products is called recycling. Recycling makes use of materials that are at the end of their useful lives which otherwise would be added to the waste stream and end up in landfills or (sadly) in the ocean and on our shores. Recycled plastic bottles are an indispensable and ubiquitous part of our lives. They are light in weight and almost unbreakable when used for their designed purpose. This is also the reason why plastics and plastic bottles account for a large part of the waste generated by our throwaway society. Plastic bottles are the most recycled plastic items but still the recycle rate is only about 24 percent.    What are the benefits to recycling plastic bottles? Conservation of Oil. When a ton of plastic bottles are recycled approximately 3.8 barrels of petroleum is saved.   Reduction of Greenhouse Gas emissions. The substitution of recycled materials reduces the emission of greenhouse gases that are produced in the manufacturing of virgin materials. Saving of Landfill Space. Not having millions of plastic bottles in the landfill results in a saving of 6.7 cubic meters of landfill space that is at a premium right now. Plastic bottles also take an average of 500 years to biodegrade. Conservation of Energy. Water and soft drink bottles are made of polyethylene terephthalate or PET.   Recycling of one pound of PET results in a saving of approximately 12,000 BTUs (British Thermal Units). Benefits of Reuse. Recycled bottles can provide an environmentally friendly source of materials for the manufacture of new products and substitutes recycle materials for virgin materials. Recycling Plastic Bottles / Is the Recycling of Plastic Bottles Economically Feasible? Up to the present there is still continuing discussion and debate over whether the recycling of plastic bottles is economically feasible. Local government units and municipalities largely see the fiscal benefits of recycling plastic bottles because of the savings in landfill space and reduced landfill costs. Statistics from a Technical University of Denmark study show that recycling is still the most efficient method to dispose of household waste in 83 percent of all cases. Critics of recycling often claim that more resources are wasted in recycling than is saved. However municipal recycling is still worthwhile if the net costs do not exceed the landfill or other disposal costs.

Pip’s distress at the end Essay

Thus Pip pleads with Ms. Havisham explaining the reasons why he cannot play. He begs Ms. Havisham to empathize with him. We can already see the reasons of Pip’s distress. He has entered an unfamiliar and frightening environment against his will. He is afraid of Ms Havisham and although he is awestruck by Estella’s beauty, he is to some extent afraid of her scorn and her arrogance. Ms Havisham then asks Pip to call Estella, when he tells her he cannot play. Ms. Havisham instructs Estella to play cards with him. Estella is reluctant to do so, she thinks of Pip as beneath her and refers to him as a common labouring boy. Estella mocks Pip for referring to the ‘knaves’ as ‘jacks’. She also derides his coarse hands and thick boots. Pip respects Estella since he feels that she is a part of high society. Pip like most people is concerned with wealth and wants to become rich. Later in the story we can see his obsession with becoming a gentleman. However Pip feels that all members of the elite classes and the prosperous are meant to be idolized and their opinions or judgments valued. This causes him to agree with Estella. As Pip says- ‘I had never thought of being ashamed of my hands before; but I began to consider them a very indifferent pair. Her contempt for me was so strong, that it became infectious and I caught it. ‘ Here Pip is humiliated and mocked by Estella. She makes him feel that he is coarse, common and unfit to be in a noble house. This further reduces Pip’s self-confidence. Ms. Havisham then asks Pip for his opinion of Estella, to which he replies that she is proud, pretty and insulting. He tells Ms. Havisham that he would like to go home. Ms. Havisham consents and tells Pip that he can have something to eat. She asks Pip when he will come again. He tells her that the present day is Wednesday. She interrupts him and tells him that she knows nothing of the days of the week and tells him to come again after six days. Here, too Ms. Havisham rebuffs Pip. She seems to suggest that knowledge of the days of a week is superfluous. Although her view is blatantly eccentric, Pip who regards the genteel as always right is more ashamed of himself and his ‘commoness’. Estella the leads Pip down to the courtyard. She rudely tells Pip to wait in the courtyard while she gets something for him. Pip says- She came back, with some bread and meat and a little mug of beer. She put the mug down on the stones on the stones of the yard, and gave me the bread and meat without looking at me, insolently as if I were a dog in disgrace. I was so humiliated, hurt, spurned, offended, angry, sorry- I cannot hit upon the right name for the smart- God knows what its name was- that tears started to my eyes. After Estella leaves Pip breaks down and weeps. He does so because he has been scorned, embarrassed and derided by the genteel, people who he now thinks of as admirable. Pip’s self-confidence has been destroyed. He feels that he is common and trivial. Pip realizes that someone he has admired all his life, is actually not respect-worthy. Show preview only The above preview is unformatted text This student written piece of work is one of many that can be found in our GCSE Great Expectations section.

Has Globalization Transformed International Politics?

Has Globalization transformed International Politics? Introduction A wide debate on how globalization affects global governance has taken place during the last years. Globalists and sceptics have argued about the transformations going on, their nature and importance. As Chanda notes, throughout history, interconnections between states and people have been growing (Chanda, 2008). However, globalization seems to have pushed these changes to a point in which a new global order arises, threatening to transform the essence of international politics. This essay will explore the ideas that have raised around the issue of globalization within international politics, trying to give a response on whether they have suffered a transformation or not. With this purpose, I will first try to give a proper and widely accepted definition of globalization. On a second section, I will look at the different perspectives defended by globalists and sceptics, as the theories proposed by both are quite relevant to understand the reach of the current circumstances. In order to give a response to the question of the title, in a third section I will focus on different areas of global governance, analysing how globalization is supposed to have transformed politics. I will refer to issues of cooperation, sovereignty, welfare, economy and security, considering the arguments of both globalists and sceptics as means to find a conclusive answer. In every section, I will try to give a personal response to every enquiry previously raised. Finally, I will end with a conclusion in which I will try give a general answer to the question on whether globalization has transformed international politics or not. Defining some concepts Defining globalization and its nature seems necessary in order to understand the issues that it has raised. Reaching a consensus on the definition of globalization is quite complicated. As Kiras, (in Baylis, 2005, p. 480) notes, it is a phenomena open to subjective interpretation and, consequently, definitions differ widely. However, it is possible to find some basic characteristics that most theorists have pointed about globalization. As a very simple explanation, Scholte (cited by Mingst, in Vayvr , p. 89) defines globalization as â€Å"the emergence and spread of a supraterritorial dimension of social relations†. Meanwhile, Thomas (cited in Clark, 1998, p. 481) defined it as â€Å"the process whereby power is located in global social formations and expressed through global networks rather than through territorially-based states†. These two general descriptions suggest that globalization is about a vast growth of interconnections between societies, governments and trade actors around the world. Summing both definitions, it can be argued that globalization is as a process that involves a shift in the spatial scale of the human social organization of our world, linking distant communities and expanding the reach of power relations through all the continents. Held (1997, p. 253) that this shift that characterizes globalization involves that day-to-day activities become progressively influenced by events taking place in other places around the planet, even those on the other side. In addition, globalization implies that actions and decisions adopted by local minority groups can have an important impact on the global issues. Thus, globalization is a multidimensional condition. It involves mostly every aspect of life. Social, technological, cultural, economic and political spheres are affected by and take part in the process of globalization. Increasing flows of power, capital, labour force, information and ideas is another of its basic characteristics. Globalization has been usually defined as a matter taking place out of the human control. However, Mingst (1999, p. 9) clarifies that this process is not inexorable and argues that â€Å"what is critical in globalization theory is the recognition that people perceive that this process is actually taking place, although not all are similarly affected†. The reach of globalization Although some consensus can be reached when defining the basic characteristics of globalization and the transformations that it ca uses, the problem comes when trying to specify the reach of its consequences and its real importance. As Rosenberg points the globalization debate is not about the reality of the change. It is about the significance and the nature of these changes that are taking place, and about the driving forces behind them (Rosenberg, 2005, p. 43). There has traditionally been a great division between globalists and sceptics. Globalists maintain that there are important transformations taking place in the world which are leading to a radically different new order. On the other hand, sceptics sustain that these changes are not that significant (Weis, 1999, p. 59). It can be argued that globalists see globalization as a threat for the current order. They think that international politics, global economy and social relations around the world will suffer a huge transformation due to globalization. Meanwhile, sceptics suggest that, although it is true that some changes are taking place, none of them will modify the essence of power and economy relations. There are two basic points in which globalists and sceptics disagree. The first one refers to the dilemma of whether globalization has led to transcendence of territory, meaning that cross border and open-border relations have been substituted by trans-border relations. Sceptics believe that transcendence of territorial space is not possible, as all transactions take place inside national defined borders and are subject to the laws of the state in which they operate (Weis, 2000, p. 61). The second divergence refers to the weight of these new transnational networks within the national and international panorama. Globalists see that there is an increasing influence in all fields, while sceptics state that globalization is mainly a financial phenomenon that affects some capital markets. When referring to international politics, the divergence between globalist and sceptic authors is also notable. Globalists believe that globalization implies a drastic power shift that restricts the capacities or national organisms, institutions and policies and favours the emergence of non-national actors. Even some sceptics have agreed with this theory, suggesting that globalization within international politics is about actors winning or losing power. Furthermore, there is a popular belief which suggests that if global networks exist, national ones are in danger, and thus globalization would cause the erosion of the power of the state (Weis, 2000, p. 4). However, it is not clear whether this theory overemphasises the changes in power without indentifying its sources. Thus, when discussing if globalization has affected International Politics, the main objective is trying to define if states have been more or less affected by the issues that globalization has raised. Of course there is always the trouble of the difficulty that it implies trying to give substance to the notions of ‘moreà ¢â‚¬â„¢ or ‘less’. However, what we can do is looking at different issues within nternational politics and analyzed the way in which globalization has transformed them –consequently changing the way in which states and international actors address these problems. That will be the task for the next section. How has globalization affected international politics? In a wide context, globalization has increased the demand for new policies aiming to address global problems that have appeared, showing certain limitations of current international organizations and states. Globalization has raised the problem of transborder networks becoming more relevant than local, regional and international ones. Together with it, theories on how the authority of states has been eroded have flourished. Governments acting within the power network of international relations seem to have overshadowed their own policy preferences in order to support others and avoid incurring high costs. Thus, economic integration and political interdepence appear to be keys of understanding the changes that globalization is pushing within international politics. Now, I will focus on the main areas in which globalization is sought to have exerted an important influence on the issues of governance. International cooperation Krahmann (2003, p. 29) remarked that many authors emphasize the fact that, through the years, global governance has been concentrated in specific regions, mainly in the developed countries, due to the concentration on power and trade networks in this areas. However, he points that this situation has been gradually shifting into a new panorama. Especially since the end of the Cold War, globaliza tion has been seen as force of change. As Weis also notes, â€Å"an unprecedented widening and deepening of international cooperation has led some to maintain that the nature of the state and of world politics are being fundamentally transformed† (Weis, 1999, p. 6). Globalization is one of the causes of states cooperating over more areas and not monopolizing the control over internal issues when they could have international consequences. International institutions and treaties have multiplied in the last years. Their expanding web has come to regulate all the problems of interstate activities. States have recognized the limitations of their capacities when addressing global problems and, as Krahman states, globalization has contributed to the creation of new networks among governments, implying international organizations, NGOs and even smaller community groups. States have continued to play a central role on international politics. However, there is little doubt that this kind of organizations, together with multinational corporations, are increasingly participating in the regulation and formulation of international policies, promoting cooperation between international actors. The absence of a global authority within international governance is also one of the reasons for the rise in cooperation (Vayrynen, 1999). However, some doubts arise contrary to these evidences. There is not real prove that globalization has been the main cause for this expansion of international organizations. Moreover, it is not clear proliferation of these new entities is really pushing forward a relevant transformation on international politics. In fact, Rosenberg (2005, p. 43) points that rather than states decision-making being undermined by the rise of international organizations, a â€Å"vigorous re-assertion of great power national interests† has taken place. Nevertheless, if globalists were true and globalization is actually transforming cooperation within International Politics, I would argue that this transformation is positive, rather than negative. If that is true, it could be argued that globalization of technologies and information has revealed to the whole world certain issues that were hushed up. It has made governments and people more conscious of problems taking place in countries that they have never thought about. The fast international mobilization after 2004 tsunami in the Indian Ocean is a good example of how cooperation has improved. Sovereignty Mingst (in Vayrynen, 1999, p. 90) defends that globalization of information and economy has challenged the state, as it sees â€Å"its sovereignty undermined and constrained and its structures unable to provide the necessary public goods†. Focusing the issues of sovereignty, Mingst and others have noted that the ability of states to initiate actions has been reduced and its sovereignty has been circumscribed. Krahman (2003, p. 333) pointed that this loss of sovereignty leads to a fragmentation of authority which benefits three entities that become increasingly powerful: subnational groups, upranational organizations and private or voluntary actors –such as NGOs or Transnational Corporations (TNCs). Thus, decision-making capacities which were traditionally taken by national states are increasingly being devolved to specific actors. Globalists have described a picture in which globalized system and people are divided, as citizens are still determined by the st ructure of the state even when their confidence in national sovereignty has been eroded. That would lead to the renaissance of national links and the reaffirmation of cultural, religious or ethnic identities (Castells, 1997, p. 74). Globalists continue of affirm that this situation would lead to the end of the current state-centric world defined by both realists and liberalists (Mingst, in Vayrynen, 1999, p. 90). From a more sceptic position, the threat on sovereignty does not seem so disturbing. â€Å"The danger is not that states will end up as marginal institutions, but that meaner, more repressive ways of organizing the state’s role will be accepted as the only way of avoiding the collapse of public institutions†, says Evans (1997, p. 64). The fact that economic or other kind of gains can be pursued without help of sovereignty does not imply that the sovereignty of the state is compromised. Thus, it seems more likely to think of globalization as a tool to reconstitute the capacity of the state, rather than eroding it. Nor even civil society does not seem a likely substitute –as some globalists have pointed (Falk, 2005, p. 222)– for public institutions of government. In fact, the growth of these kinds of new actors requires solid state powers in order to develop properly. Both international and local actors need vigorous capable organizational counterparts in the state. As Evans pointed, â€Å"a move toward less capable and involved states will make it more difficult for civic associations to achieve their goals† (Evans, 1997, p. 82). Rather than globalization challenging the power and the integrity of the state, certain authors see a picture in which both engage in everlasting reciprocal regulation that ends up redefining the state itself (Clark, 1998). Clark remarks that one of the main issues within globalization is its challenge to the realization of democracy. Globalization requires a new way of behaving in the international sphere that cannot consist on merely extending domestic practices to international activities. As he argues, it is not possible to maintain that â€Å"aggregation of democratic states produces democratic multirateralism†. In this context, the theory of the ideological pendulum proposed by Evans (Evans, 1997, p. 83) looks like the better explanation for all this changes. We are witnessing the end of an era in which the states tried to handle with more issues than what they really could. Now the new tendency is the contrary, as there is an excessive pessimism on the capacities of states (Rodrik, 1997a, p. 413). The excessive optimism on the states capabilities is turning into a situation in which it sees necessary ceding part of its sovereignty to other entities. However, this does not mean that sovereignty is in danger, nor even that states will lose their central role. As Chanda suggests, throughout history states have been able to give response to wide or global problems without surrendering or compromising its sovereignty (Chanda, 1998). The dismantling of the welfare state? Taking again in consideration Mingst definition of the challenges of globalization for the state, we see that the second one referred to the guarantees of social welfare that governments can provide. He asserted that in an era of globalization states structures are â€Å"unable to provide the necessary public goods† (Mingst, in Vayrynen, 1999, p. 90). Many globalists blame globalization for the dismantling of the welfare state and the expansion of the division between rich and poor in more developed states. In the global era, national economies are exposed to fluctuations that they cannot control and that affect their capacities to provide traditional welfare conditions (Hirst and Thompson, 1999, p. 164). Rieger (in Held and McGrew, 2000) states that there is a real globalization pressure which seeks to minimize welfare state –mainly from private enterprises, especially TNCs. The power of trade unions has been apparently eroded and democracies seem to become more restrictive. Firms that operate in globalized and integrated markets suffer major cost differentials in social benefits and, thus, globalization seems to threaten the welfare state. In addition, in a period of globalization, the number of citizens depending on the welfare states increases –as a consequence of migration and movement of labour force– and governments become unable to afford welfare. Moreover, the integration of markets on global levels leaves no space for welfare states in which the rates of labour productivity and production quality are similar. Thus, globalist authors suggest that the only way for avoiding that globalization ends up with the welfare state is by signing new international social contracts (Castells, 1997, p. 253). If we take in consideration this theory, it would be quite clear that globalization has transformed the way in which governments have to deal with welfare states issues. Moreover, it would mean that the global order is pushing for a renewal of the international policies within this field. However, sceptics have a totally different vision of the problem. Rieger, for instance, admits that although it is possible to see a pressure of globalization on welfare state, this pressure is not unsustainable (in Held and McGrew, 2000). Sceptics argue that globalization has not brought any drastic dismantling of the welfare state. In fact, it seems even more difficult to change the status quo of the welfare state as the pressure of globalization becomes stronger. In fact, studies have demonstrated that globalization does not affect wages, employment or income inequality; especially in countries were the welfare state is strong (Slaughter and Swagel 1997). Consequently, it would be possible to conclude that globalization is not transforming international policies related to the welfare state in a crucial way. Governments are, in fact, renewing their policies constantly, but there is no real evidence that the new global order has reduced states’ capability to provide welfare to its citizens. Political economy Globalization of economy and trade has traditionally been seen as the main responsible for the loss of authority of the states within international politics. Globalists state that prosperity and power are increasingly a consequence of private business between private actors across the boundaries of countries. Transactions taking place inside national borders have lost weight, and thus globalists assert that, within global economy, â€Å"it has become harder to sustain the image of states as the preeminent actors at the global level† (Nettl, cited in Evans, 1997, p. 65). Globalists believe that nowadays private actors make the decisions on which territory is included in the global markets or excluded from the global production networks. Thus, states are seen merely as mediators, which just can try to make their nations attractive for investors, but they cannot run the global economy system. In fact, it has been mentioned that states engaging in policies contraries to the interests of financial actors would be punished with measures such as a decline of their currencies or its access to capital (Evans, 1997, p. 67). Furthermore, globalists state that even the own market can react against hostile decisions of states. â€Å"Capital has long demonstrated willingness and ability to react to what it perceives as unfavourable policies† says Weis (1999, p. 8). Taking these arguments in consideration, it could be argued that globalization has undermined the power of states within political economy, thus radically transforming this aspect of international politics. However, some sceptic authors, such as Rodrik (in Nye, 2000, p. 349) state that economic globalization is far away from being extended as it seems. He think s that â€Å"international economic integration remains remarkably limited†. In fact, some arguments support this theory. There are still great obstacles for the global market, such as tariff barriers or linguistic and cultural differences. National borders have not disappeared, contrary to what most globalist theorists argue, and their restrictions and rules are still relevant in most international transactions. Moreover, the levels of investments in national assets are still higher that internationals. There are still strict restrictions for the mobility of labour around the world. Thus, Rodrik suggests that â€Å"while formal barriers to trade and capital flows have been substantially reduced over the past three decades, international markets for goods, services, and capital are not nearly as thick as they would be under complete integration†. It is possible to argue, as Evans does, that the role of states within international political economy is not undermined by the fact of its becoming increasingly dependent on private actors and global trade. In fact, it has been proved that the bigger is the reliance on trade, the more important is the role of the state (Evans, 1997, p. 68). Thus, powerful and involved states are more likely to participate actively within global markets. Then, the role of the state is not really undermined, and even â€Å"high stateness† can be a competitive advantage. It can be argued that globalization is not responsible for the growth of the multilateral economic order; neither is it a cause of undermining the power of states as international actors. Then, if some crucial transformations have taken place during the last years within international political economy, it would be unfair to blame globalization. Globalization of crime As a final point, I will briefly refer to one of the issues that has been more present within international politics in the last years. National security is one of the main problems pointed to have emerged as a big challenge of globalization. As Kiras (in Baylis, 2005, p. 482) pointed, globalization of technologies and information has improved the capabilities of terrorists. Communication and mobility of people across the borders is increasing, and this gives more facilities for criminals to act. Apart from terrorism, a new global organized crime seems to have emerged, conditioning certain economic and political aspects of international politics and, moreover, destabilizing national governments (Castells, 1997). In fact, there is a growing importance of economic flows with criminal origin –such as those coming from the illegal weapons or drugs markets. Whether globalization can be blamed for these circumstances or not is a difficult question to be answered. However, it is clear that this is one of the issues that have transformed international politics in a more crucial way. Governments are not able to fight with this new global crime by themselves, so they are moving towards multilateralism in foreign policy and defence (Castells, 1997). Whether this multilateralism is something that erodes the autonomy of the states or just a positive cooperative measure is a question that still needs to be answered. Conclusion The debate between globalists and sceptics is still continuing nowadays. However, recent events have come to support the theories of the latter ones. As Rosenberg points, globalization has not transformed the essence of international politics. The new global and radically distinct order that globalists had announced is not a reality. Little essential changes have taken place (Rosenberg, 2005, p. 3). While examining the issues of sovereignty, welfare or trade that globalization has raised, it is possible to perceive that it has pushed some transformations. However, most of them are not significant. Moreover, it is not quite clear in what grade globalization is responsible for them. Nevertheless, it can be argued that the global order is not undermining the power of the state. Instead, states that are strong and participative seem to be more powerful and play a more important role within the issues of globalization. As Clark stated, instead of globalization eroding the capacities of states, it is more appropriate to sustain that globalization in a process parallel to an apparent reconstruction of the state (Clark, 1998, p. 491). International politics are suffering a shift on the policies that they need to apply in fields like welfare and finance. Although this shift does not affect the nature of international politics, it seems necessary to preserve the predominant position of traditional states. New private and public powers are arising, and governments need to learn to deal with them in order to keep their status. There are also new threats that states cannot fight for themselves. Thus a growing cooperation is necessary to resolve the problems of the world. Bibliography Aas, K. F. (2007), Globalization and Crime, SAGE Publications, London Baylis, J. And Smith, S. (2005, 3rd edition), The Globalization of World Politics: An Introduction to International Relations, Oxford University Press Castells, M. (1997), The Power of Identity, Blackwell Publishers Clark, I. (1998), Beyond the Great Divide: globalization and the theory of international relations, Review of International Studies, 24, pp. 479-498 Chanda, N. (2008), Runaway globalization without governance, Global Governance, 14 (2) Evans P. (1997), The Eclipse of the State? , World Politics, n. 50 Falk, R. (2005), Reimagining the Governance of Globalization, in Appelbaum, R. and Robinson, W. Critical Globalization Studies, Routledge Held, D. (1997), Democracy and Globalization, Global Governance, 3, pp. 251-267 Held, D. and McGrew A. (2000), The Global Transformations Reader: An Introduction to the Globalization Debate, Polity Press Hirst, P. and Thompson, G. (1999, 2nd edition), Globalization in question, Polity Press Krahmann E. (2003), National, Regional and Global Governance : One Phenomenon or Many, Global Governance, 9 Mingst, K. A. (1999), Global Governance: The American Perspective, in Vayrinen, R. , Globalization and Global Governance, Rowman and Littlefield Publishers Nye, J. S. and Donahue, J. D. (2000), Governance in a Globalizing World, Brookings Institution Press Rieger, E. and Leibfried, S. (2000), Welfare State Limits to Globalization, in Held, D. and McGrew A. , The Global Transformations Reader: An Introduction to the Globalization Debate, Polity Press Rodrik, D. (1997a), The Paradoxes of the Successful State, European Economic Review, Volume 41, Issues 3-5, April Rodrik, D. (1997b), Sense and Nonsense in the Globalization Debate, Foreign Policy Rodrik, D. (2000), Governance of Economic Globalization, in Nye, J. S. and Donahue, J. D. Governance in a Globalizing World, Brookings Institution Press Rosenberg, J. (2005), Globalisation Theory: A Post Mortem, International Politics Sassen, S. (1996), Losing Control? Sovereignty in an Age of Globalization, New York Slaughter, M. J. and Swagel, P. (1997) Does Globalization Lower Wages and Export Jobs? , International Monetary Fund available at http://www. imf. org/external/pubs/ft/issues11 (accessed 7 Dec ember 2009) Vayrynen, R. (1999), Globalization and Global Governance, Rowman and Littlefield Publishers Weis, L. (1999), Globalization and National Governance, Review of International Politics

Impacts of Beauty Pageants - 842 Words

Beauty may be defined as possessing qualities that give great pleasure or satisfaction (Beautiful. Dictionary.com. Dictionary.com, n.d. Wed. 9 Apr. 2014). In today’s society, more emphasis is being placed more on the outer characteristics an individual may portray and competitions are formed to see who is the better looking. These pageants however do not embrace the naturally beautiful women seeing that the ones that usually win are the ones that went through countless plastic surgeries or even inhumane dietary practices just to get in the state they are. But what these competitions are actually doing is damaging the self esteem and respect of normal women and giving them the assumption that they have to wear make-up or perform alternations their bodies in order to be attractive. Even though some may enjoy watching such contests there are a variety of negative long term effects these competitions tend to have on the younger women in society that look up to some of these contes tants as role-models. Such contest can be degrading to women, for example the bikini category where women may have to walk around in their underwear, they can provide an unrealistic perception of how the human body is supposed to look, a majority of models might not be in their best healthy state due to various practices in preparation for competition, it also gives the contenders and younger women an obsession with physical appearance and what society sees as beauty, lower self esteem andShow MoreRelatedBeauty Pageants Has A Negative Impact On Female Adolescents1400 Words   |  6 Pagesold, was competing in a beauty pageant, she was wearing a crop top with a short skirt doing a Miley Cyrus performance. The judges were amazed by her performance even though it was provocative. In the pageant world that is known as the ideal dance for a glitz beauty pageant. A beauty pageant is a competition against girls ages from two to eighteen, doing activities such as walking across the stage s howing off their beauty. In higher competitions such as The Miss America Pageants, and Miss Universe theyRead MoreImportance Of Beauty Pageants1487 Words   |  6 PagesAre Beauty Pageants Necessary in Society? Have any of you girls ever been interested in participating in a beauty pageant? For those who don’t, you probably asked yourself â€Å"What is the point of these events?† I chose this topic because I use to watch the show â€Å"Toddlers and Tiara’s† and I was really intrigued by how much money parents would spend for their children to look like Barbie dolls. Everything I learned about pageants was from this TLC show. 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